Tensions That Cause Wars: Common Statement and Individual Papers By a Group of Social Scientists Brought Together By Unesco

Tensions That Cause Wars by Hadley Cantril analyzes the social, economic, psychological, and ideological forces that generate conflict between nations and ignite wars. Leading social scientists, convened by UNESCO after World War II, gathered in Paris in 1948 to formulate a comprehensive understanding of international tensions and to propose strategies for lasting peace. Their findings, published in this volume, present a multidisciplinary blueprint for confronting the structural and subjective sources of war.

Historical Context and Purpose

The devastation of the Second World War prompted an unprecedented search for the roots of conflict. UNESCO, recognizing the urgency of preventing future wars, authorized an international inquiry to identify and address the conditions that predispose societies to aggression. Representatives from diverse disciplines—including sociology, psychology, psychiatry, and philosophy—accepted the challenge. Their mandate: to analyze the causes of war at their deepest levels, beyond the visible actions of statesmen or armies.

By assembling social scientists from multiple countries and ideological backgrounds, the conference sought convergence amid profound diversity. The book presents both a common statement of agreement and a series of individual essays. This structure provides readers a layered, multidimensional view of the problem, as agreement and disagreement become equally revealing.

War and Human Nature

Participants directly confront the question: Does human nature compel societies to wage war? The assembled scientists reject deterministic explanations that trace war to immutable instincts or unchanging drives. Instead, they assert that structural conditions—material, social, psychological—shape both the possibility and the trajectory of conflict. The authors propose that men and women everywhere share core needs: freedom from hunger and disease, security, respect, and opportunities for personal growth. Where societies frustrate these needs, tensions arise and leaders find material for mobilizing aggression.

War emerges through the convergence of group pressures, economic disparities, cultural myths, and learned expectations. The authors identify the satisfaction of fundamental needs as essential to peace. Unmet needs, they argue, breed insecurity and resentment, which demagogues channel into hostility against out-groups.

The Economic Roots of Conflict

Alexander Szalai, drawing on Marxist analysis, presents economic inequality and class antagonism as central engines of modern war. He traces imperialist wars to the structure of monopoly capitalism, where profit motives, colonial exploitation, and class conflict intensify competition between states. According to Szalai, wars of conquest and economic expansion do not reflect ancient impulses but arise from specific conditions within modern systems of production. Efforts to eradicate war, in his view, require more than ideological persuasion or superficial reform. They demand systemic transformation, including the dismantling of exploitative structures and the creation of equitable social relations.

Szalai urges social scientists to connect their research to practice, fostering international cooperation in pursuit of a scientific understanding of society. He advocates comparative research across national boundaries, especially in education, to reveal how systems shape attitudes toward aggression and peace.

Ideology, Expectation, and the Role of Leadership

Gordon Allport, focusing on psychological factors, introduces the concept of expectancy as a key driver of warlike behavior. He asserts that people do not spontaneously seek conflict. Instead, leaders construct expectations—through propaganda, myth, and manipulation—that war is both inevitable and necessary. These expectations, once internalized, shape collective action and make societies susceptible to mobilization. Allport identifies two mistaken extremes: the belief that war springs solely from individual aggressiveness, and the belief that it results exclusively from historical or economic structures. Instead, he proposes that war expectations crystallize through both personal and social dynamics.

Myths, symbols, and traditions—often embedded in national narratives—perpetuate images of the “enemy” and the virtue of collective struggle. Education and mass communication play decisive roles, either reinforcing divisive myths or opening possibilities for critical reflection and international empathy.

Education as a Catalyst for Peace

The scientists identify education as both a source of tension and a potential engine for peace. Teachers and parents, often unconsciously, transmit inherited attitudes shaped by their own formative experiences in different historical contexts. Outdated loyalties, prejudices, and simplistic images of other nations persist in curricula, limiting the capacity for objective understanding. The contributors urge a transformation of education at every level, fostering self-critique, empathy, and openness to alternative perspectives.

They advocate international comparative research in education, with the aim of revealing how specific systems cultivate or inhibit tendencies toward aggression. They argue for a new pedagogy—critical, self-disciplined, and globally minded—that challenges national self-righteousness and fosters an integrated sense of world citizenship.

The Power and Danger of Mass Communication

Modern technologies—radio, press, film, and television—amplify both the risks and opportunities of the information age. The contributors warn that mass communication can rapidly disseminate distortions, reinforce stereotypes, and make large populations susceptible to demagogic appeals. At the same time, these channels hold immense promise for building mutual understanding, correcting false images, and fostering the empathy required for international solidarity.

The authors place responsibility on global organizations, such as the United Nations and UNESCO, to use mass communication for educational purposes. They envision programs that enable people to see themselves as others see them, undermining myths of national superiority and facilitating the exchange of perspectives across borders.

Colonialism, Minority Oppression, and the Challenge of Justice

The scientists examine colonial exploitation and the oppression of minorities as persistent sources of conflict. They assert that no group willingly accepts permanent inferiority; colonial structures and internal systems of discrimination generate deep-seated resentment and resistance. The contributors explicitly reject pseudoscientific theories of racial inferiority, instead identifying economic and political injustice as root causes of group antagonism.

Addressing these injustices, they argue, forms a necessary condition for any sustainable peace. Political reforms, economic redistribution, and recognition of legitimate aspirations serve as practical foundations for stability and reconciliation.

Toward a Science of Social Cooperation

The contributors call for intensified international cooperation in social science research. They recommend the creation of global research institutes, international universities, and joint fact-finding projects. By systematically comparing cultures, institutions, and attitudes, social scientists can illuminate both sources of tension and pathways to peace.

They highlight the need for objectivity and integrity within the social sciences themselves. Economic or political pressures often induce narrow, partisan perspectives, hampering the discipline’s potential to serve the common good. The authors urge strong, internationally funded programs to support rigorous, collaborative research, able to resist ideological manipulation.

The Function of Ideological Conviction

Arne Naess and others examine the power of ideology to both sustain and overcome conflict. Ideologies, once hardened into dogmatic belief systems, resist evidence and inhibit compromise. The contributors suggest that social scientists, by clarifying the origins and limits of ideologies, can undermine the absolutism that often drives wars. They advocate a flexible, open-ended approach to inquiry, capable of recognizing the historical contingency of doctrines and the value of critical dialogue.

They also examine the interplay between material conditions and ideological superstructures. While economic relations shape belief systems, these ideologies also feed back, reinforcing or challenging the underlying structures.

Lessons from the History of Fascism

Max Horkheimer and other contributors draw lessons from the experience of fascism. They explore the ways in which authoritarianism, economic crisis, and mass manipulation created fertile ground for aggressive nationalism and ultimately for war. The essays document the mechanisms of propaganda, the cultivation of scapegoats, and the exploitation of fear. Understanding these dynamics enables societies to recognize early warning signs and to develop preventive strategies.

The Role of Social Structure and Subjectivity

John Rickman and Harry Stack Sullivan delve into the psychodynamic dimensions of tension. They examine how unconscious fears, unresolved conflicts, and personality structures interact with social realities. Aggression, in their view, often reflects displacements of personal frustration onto external targets, shaped by group dynamics and societal pressures. Their analysis highlights the need for both social reform and personal growth, as the roots of war span from the intimate to the global.

A Blueprint for Peace

The book’s common statement synthesizes the group’s main recommendations: Fulfill universal human needs; address economic injustice; challenge divisive myths; transform education; harness mass communication for empathy; oppose colonialism and oppression; foster international research and cooperation; and recognize the reciprocal influence of ideology and structure.

They envision a world in which the welfare and freedom of one group depend on the welfare and freedom of others—a world where local effort harmonizes with global responsibility. Through disciplined research, education, and the cultivation of critical consciousness, societies can reduce tensions and chart a path toward peace.

Practical Recommendations and Future Directions

The scientists propose concrete steps. They urge policymakers to support cross-national research, establish international academic institutions, and reform education to promote critical, self-aware citizenship. They recommend large-scale comparative studies of attitudes, values, and susceptibilities to propaganda, with the aim of identifying vulnerabilities and building resilience.

They emphasize the need for dialogue between different ideological traditions, recognizing that misunderstanding and lack of communication generate avoidable conflict. Through sustained exchange, scientists can dispel stereotypes, clarify concepts, and build the intellectual infrastructure for cooperation.

Enduring Relevance

Tensions That Cause Wars provides both an analytical framework and a call to action. The convergence of historical experience, social science research, and ethical commitment shapes a new paradigm for the study of conflict and the pursuit of peace. As the global order continues to evolve, the book’s integrated perspective—linking needs, structures, expectations, ideologies, and actions—remains essential for those seeking to understand and prevent war.

The challenges outlined in the book remain vivid: economic disparities, persistent myths, the dangers of manipulation, and the unfinished task of creating institutions capable of mediating tensions before they escalate. Yet the contributors insist on the capacity of human societies to learn, adapt, and build new systems of cooperation. By integrating knowledge, fostering dialogue, and acting with resolve, societies possess the tools to confront the tensions that cause wars and to shape a more just and peaceful world.